Considerations for the selection of Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm. seeds: a review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29298/rmcf.v17i95.1626Keywords:
Seed storage, harvest, dormancy, germination, longevity, seedlingAbstract
Gmelina arborea is a tropical species of high commercial value for forest plantations due to its rapid growth and its various uses. Typically, its timber yield ranges from 15 to 21 m3 ha-1 year-1 and from 40 to 50 m3 ha-1 year-1 in optimal sites. However, seed availability, dormancy, and low viability limit large-scale seedling production. This paper compiles key considerations for seed selection and management, from harvest through seedling establishment. It is important to harvest yellowish-brown fruits (at peak embryonic maturity), remove the pulp, and dry the seeds in the sun for 7 days to prevent damage from pests and diseases during transport and storage. Dormancy can be broken by pre-germination treatments with gibberellic acid (GA3; 200 ppm, 24 h), concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4; 10 min), or cold water (24 h), resulting in germination rates of up to 98.88, 93.33, and 80 %, respectively. Size is an important factor in germination: large seeds (0.94 g) achieve an 80.25 % germination rate and a faster germination rate. To maintain viability, a humidity level of 5-8 % and a temperature of 7-8 °C are recommended, along with hydration-dehydration treatments or the use of oxygen microbubbles to extend the shelf life of the germplasm. Finally, given the species’ high genetic diversity (95.4 % polymorphism), it is recommended to collect seeds from different sources to ensure their adaptation and resilience to climate change.
Downloads
References
Adebisi, M. A., & Bello, F. Y. (2015). Seed germination and seedling vigour attributes of Gmelina (Gmelina arborea) seeds affected by fruit maturity levels and pre-storage invigoration treatments under ambient tropical conditions. Nigeria Agricultural Journal, 46(1), 155-170. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/naj/article/view/125565
Adebisi, M. A., Adekunle, M. F., & Odebiyi, O. A. (2011). Effects of fruit maturity and pre-sowing water treatment on germinative performance of Gmelina arborea seeds. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 23(4), 371-378. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265118043_Effects_of_fruit_maturity_and_pre-sowing_water_treatment_on_germinative_performance_of_Gmelina_aborea_seeds
Adeleye, A. S., Adebanjo, A. E., Omoghie, E. S., Ogundare, T., & Alli, S. A. (2021). Constraints and prospects of mechanized processing of forest tree seeds. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 25(4), 637-642. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jasem/article/download/215821/203537 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v25i4.24
Agboola, D. A. (1996). The effect of seed size on germination and seedling growth of three tropical tree species. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 9(1), 44-51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43582136
Alizaga, R., & Herrera, J. (2001). Tratamientos pregerminativos en semillas de melina (Gmelina arborea). Tecnología en Marcha, 14(2), 52-58. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4835414
Anandalakshmi, R., Geetha, S., Singh, B. G., Sivakumar, V., & Warrier, R. R. (2016). Effect of fruit maturity stages on the germination and storage behavior of Gmelina arborea. MyForest, 52(1-4), 69-76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322075656_Effect_of_fruit_maturity_stages_on_the_germination_and_storage_behavior_of_Gmelina_arborea
Berry, N., Shukla, A., & Barkade, E. (2021). Pre-sowing treatment of seeds and its impact on germination of Gmelina arborea Roxb. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 10(10), 239-243. https://doi.org/10.22271/tpi.2021.v10.i10d.8004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/tpi.2021.v10.i10d.8004
Blakesley, D., Elliott, S., Kuarak, C., Navakitbumrung, P., Zangkum, S., & Anusarnsunthorn, V. (2002). Propagating framework tree species to restore seasonally dry tropical forest: implications of seasonal seed dispersal and dormancy. Forest Ecology and Management, 164(1-3), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00609-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00609-0
Chacón, P., & Murillo, O. (2005). Variación genética en la dominancia apical como respuesta a la decapitación en clones juveniles de Gmelina arborea Roxb. Kurú: Revista Forestal, 2(6), 1-13. https://revistas.tec.ac.cr/index.php/kuru/article/view/535/461
Correa, E. M., Alvarez, S. C., Espitia, M. M., & Cardona, C. E. (2013). Modelos de secado y tolerancia a la desecación de semillas de Tectona grandis L. f. y Gmelina arborea Roxb. Revista de Ciencias Agrícolas, 30(2), 20-33. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5104079
Cremaldi, J. C., & Bhushan, B. (2018). Bioinspired self-healing materials: lessons from nature. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology, 9, 907-935. https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.9.85 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.9.85
Dasgupta, J., Bewley, J. D., & Yeung, E. C. (1982). Desiccation-tolerant and desiccation-intolerant stages during the development and germination of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds. Journal of Experimental Botany, 33(5), 1045-1057. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/33.5.1045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/33.5.1045
Dvorak, W. S. (2004). World view of Gmelina arborea: Opportunities and challenges. New Forests, 28, 111-126. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NEFO.0000040940.32574.22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NEFO.0000040940.32574.22
Florido, L. V., & Cornejo, A. T. (2002). Yemane Gmelina arborea (Roxb.). Research Information Series on Ecosystems, 14(3), 3-8. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arvind-Singh-21/post/Need-articles-related-to-on-seed-vegetative-propagation-of-Gmelina-arborea-Gamar-sivan/attachment/59d649cc79197b80779a436a/AS%3A472521951715328%401489669420685/download/1.pdf
Fornah, Y., Mattia, S. B., Otesile, A. A., & Kamara, E. G. (2017). Effects of provenance and seed size on germination, seedling growth and physiological traits of Gmelina arborea, Roxb. International Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 7(1), 28-34. https://scispace.com/pdf/effects-of-provenance-and-seed-size-on-germination-seedling-24ur1sx1vc.pdf
Galán-Larrea, R., Vargas-Hernández, J., & Rodríguez-Laguna, R. (2000). Tratamientos para estimular y homogeneizar la germinación en semillas de Gmelina arborea Roxb. Revista Chapingo Serie Ciencias Forestales y del Ambiente, 6(1), 21-28. https://share.google/IzpFWO5uImSwpbysi
Handayani, D. P., Mahfud, M., Kurniawansyah, F., & Kusuma, H. S. (2025). A thematic review of corrosion inhibitor publications in the Moroccan Journal of Chemistry: trends, mechanisms, and research gaps. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 13(4), 1881-1911. https://doi.org/10.48317/IMIST.PRSM/morjchem-v13i4.58884
Hasnat, G. N. T., Hossain, M. K., & Hossain, M. A. (2016). Flowering, fruiting and seed maturity of common plantation tree species in Bangladesh. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 7(1), 583-589. https://www.journalbinet.com/uploads/2/1/0/0/21005390/flowering_fruiting_and_seed_maturity_of_common_plantation_tree_species_in_bangladesh_v.1.1.pdf DOI: https://doi.org/10.18801/jbar.070116.70
Hernández-Castro, W., Badilla-Valverde, Y., & Murillo-Gamboa, O. (2021). Estimación de parámetros genéticos de Gmelina arborea Roxb. (melina) en el Caribe de Costa Rica. Uniciencia, 35(1), 352-366. https://doi.org/10.15359/RU.35-1.22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15359/ru.35-1.22
Hossain, M. M. (2012). Germination and initial growth of tree seedlings on deforested and natural forest soil at Dulhazara, Bangladesh. Revista de Biología Tropical, 60(4), 1479-1489. https://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-77442012000400006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v60i4.2056
Khanduri, V. P., Kumar, K. S., Sharma, C. M., Riyal, M. K., & Kar, K. (2019). Pollen limitation and seed set associated with year-to-year variation in flowering of Gmelina arborea in a natural tropical forest. Grana, 58(2), 133-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/00173134.2018.1536164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00173134.2018.1536164
Kumari, S., Pandey, S. B. S., Prahlad, V. C., Upadhyay, K., & Chopra, R. (2025). Influence of light intensity and growing media on germination and growth of Gmelina arborea Roxb. seedlings in the South-eastern region of Rajasthan. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 31(3), 146-160. https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2025/v31i32887 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2025/v31i32887
Maharana, R., Dobriyal, M. J., Behera, L. K., Gunaga, R. P., & Thakur, N. S. (2018). Effect of pre seed treatment and growing media on germination parameters of Gmelina arborea Roxb. Indian Journal of Ecology, 45(3), 623-626. https://indianecologicalsociety.com/wp-content/themes/ecology/volume_pdfs/abstract_35.pdf
Naik, D., Singh, D., Vartak, V., Paranjpe, S., & Bhargava, S. (2009). Assessment of morphological and genetic diversity in Gmelina arborea Roxb. New Forests, 38, 99-115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-009-9134-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-009-9134-y
Naithani, S. C., Naithani, R., Varghese, B., Godheja, J. K., & Sahu, K. K. (2004). Conservation of four tropical forest tree seeds from India. In M. Sacandé, D. Jøker, M. E. Dulloo & K. A. Thomsen (Eds.), Comparative storage biology of tropical tree seeds (pp. 174-191). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322096695_Conservation_of_four_tropical_forest_tree_seeds_from_India
Ogunnika, C. B., & Kadeba, O. (1993). Effects of various methods of extraction on germination of Gmelina arborea seeds/fruits. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 5(4), 473-478. https://jtfs.frim.gov.my/jtfs/article/view/1963
Onwe, D. N., Okoko, P., & Akpan, M. G. (2023). Determination of some physical and mechanical properties of Gmelina arborea seed. Asian Journal of Advances in Agricultural Research, 21(3), 23-29. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaar/2023/v21i3419 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaar/2023/v21i3419
Owoh, P. W., Offiong, M. O., Udofia, S. I., & Ekanem, V. U. (2011). Effects of seed size on germination and early morphological and physiological characteristics of Gmelina arborea, Roxb. African Research Review, 5(6), 422-433. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v5i6.33 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v5i6.33
Patil, Y. B., Saralch, H. S., Mahale, S. R., Chauhan, S. K., & Sharma, R. (2018). Effect of growing environment, fruit maturity and sowing time on germination and seedling growth of Gmelina arborea Roxb. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(12), 2543–2552. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.712.289 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.712.289
Ramírez-Jaramillo, G., Lozano-Contreras, M. G., & Ramírez-Silva, J. H. (2019). Potential areas for growing Gmelina arborea Roxb., under rainfed conditions in Tabasco, Mexico. Agricultural Sciences, 10(9), 1206-1216. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2019.109090 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2019.109090
Rotowa, O. J., & Adeagbo, A. A. (2019). Provenances trial of Gmelina arborea (Roxb.) in middle-belt zone of Nigeria. Research Journal of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 7(3), 27-31. https://www.isca.me/AGRI_FORESTRY/Archive/v7/i3/4.ISCA-RJAFS-2019-009.php
Sachan, S., Verma, S., Kumar, S., & Kumar, A. (2020). Morphological, physiological and biochemical performance of Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea under drought stress conditions. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(1), 1305-1314. https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i1r.8437 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i1r.8437
Saralch, H. S., & Singh, S. P. (2013). Determining maturity indices for time of seed collection in Gmelina arborea under Punjab conditions. International Journal of Farm Sciences, 3(2), 90-94. https://sadhnahp.com/storage/articles/December2025/EzLuXrqWYAFDKZd.pdf
Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. (2014). Anuario estadístico de la producción forestal 2014 [Libro blanco]. Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/282926/2014.pdf
Siregar, I. Z., Muharam, K. F., Purwanto, Y. A., & Sudrajat, D. J. (2020). Seed germination characteristics in different storage time of Gmelina arborea treated with ultrafine bubbles priming. Biodiversitas, 21(10), 4558-4564. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d211013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d211013
Sudrajat, D. J., & Rustam, E. (2020). Reforestation by direct seeding of Gmelina arborea using seed briquettes: Composition, size and site preparation, and sowing date. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 533, Article 012014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/533/1/012014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/533/1/012014
Tomar, A., Beauty, K., Singh, B. K., & Kumar, D. (2024). Morphological variations and germination behaviour of seeds of four fodder tree species. Journal of Global Agriculture and Ecology, 16(3), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.56557/jogae/2024/v16i38741 DOI: https://doi.org/10.56557/jogae/2024/v16i38741
Waiboonya, P., Elliott, S., & Tiansawat, P. (2019). Seed storage behaviour of native forest tree species of Northern Thailand. EnvironmentAsia, 12(3), 104-111. https://doi.org/10.14456/ea.2019.50
Wee, A. K. S., Li, C. H., Dvorak, W. S., & Hong, Y. (2012). Genetic diversity in natural populations of Gmelina arborea: Implications for breeding and conservation. New Forests, 43, 411-428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-011-9288-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-011-9288-2
Yulianti, Putri, K. P., Yuniarti, N., Aminah, A., Suita, E., Danu, Sudrajat, D. J., Nurhasybi, & Syamsuwida, D. (2020). Seed handling of specific forest tree species: Recalcitrant and intermediate seed. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 522, Article 012015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/522/1/012015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/522/1/012015
Yuniarti, N., Bramasto, Y., & Syamsuwida, D. (2018). Storage techniques of the twenty seed species of urban forests. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 203, Article 012012. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/203/1/012012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/203/1/012012
Zubaidah, S., Mansur, I., Budi, S. W., & Yusmur, A. (2022). Seedball coating material formulation to enhance germination and growth of fruit and forest seeds. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 959, Article 012039. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/959/1/012039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/959/1/012039
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
The authors who publish in Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales accept the following conditions:
In accordance with copyright laws, Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales recognizes and respects the authors’ moral right and ownership of property rights which will be transferred to the journal for dissemination in open access.
All the texts published by Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales –with no exception– are distributed under a Creative Commons License Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0), which allows third parties to use the publication as long as the work’s authorship and its first publication in this journal are mentioned
The author(s) can enter into independent and additional contractual agreements for the nonexclusive distribution of the version of the article published in Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales (for example, include it into an institutional repository or publish it in a book) as long as it is clearly and explicitly indicated that the work was published for the first time in Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales.
For all the above, the authors shall send the form of Letter-transfer of Property Rights for the first publication duly filled in and signed by the author(s). This form must be sent as a PDF file to: ciencia.forestal2@inifap.gob.mx
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International license.
