Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales Vol. 17 (95)

Mayo - Junio (2026)

Fecha de recepción/Reception date: 16 de enero de 2026.

Fecha de aceptación/Acceptance date: 6 de abril de 2026.

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¹Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero, Maestría en Ciencias Agropecuarias y Gestión Local, campus Tuxpan. México.

²Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero, Doctorado en Sostenibilidad de los Recursos Agropecuarios, campus Tuxpan. México.

³Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Doctorado en Sustentabilidad para el Desarrollo. México.

*Autor para correspondencia; correo-e: jorgehuza@hotmail.com

*Correponding author; e-mail: jorgehuza@hotmail.com

Abstract

Artisanal mezcal production in Northern state of Guerrero, Mexico, is a deeply rooted biocultural practice, where firewood plays a key role as the primary energy source. This ethnobotanical study was conducted in four communities with a strong mezcal tradition (El Calvario, Apetlanca, Temalac and Mezquitlán) to identify and analyze the dendroenergetic species that are used as fuel for cooking and distillation for mezcal production. Eighty semi-structured interviews were carried out with producers, representing 50 % of the total population in the study area. The Use Value (UV), Significant Use Level (SUL) and Direct Matrix Ranking (DMR) indices were applied. Results documented 15 timber species, with the Fabaceae family predominating due to its high density and calorific value. Species such as Lysiloma acapulcense and Leucaena esculenta showed the highest levels of cultural consensus (SUL>50 %). Inferential analysis showed highly significant differences in ethnobotanical knowledge and fuel consumption among locations (p<0.0001). It was identified that 90 % of producers use green firewood in at least one of their processes, a practice that compromises energy efficiency and increases pressure on the low deciduous forest. It is concluded that the sustainability of the mezcal system requires integrating community forest management and firewood traceability into regulatory frameworks such as NOM-070-SCFI-2016, recognizing dendroenergetic resources as an input as critical to the industry's identity and permanence as the agave itself.

Keywords: Artisanal, fuels, dendroenergy, energy, ethnobotany, firewood.

Resumen

La producción artesanal de mezcal en el norte de Guerrero, México representa una práctica biocultural de gran arraigo, en el cual la leña desempeña un papel clave como fuente de energía para el proceso. Este estudio etnobotánico se realizó en cuatro comunidades con fuerte tradición mezcalera (El Calvario, Apetlanca, Temalac y Mezquitlán), con el objetivo de identificar y analizar las especies dendroenergéticas empleadas. Para ello, se llevaron a cabo 80 entrevistas semiestructuradas a productores, que corresponden a 50 % del total en el área de estudio. Se aplicaron los índices de Valor de Uso (IVU), Nivel de Uso Significativo (UST) y Clasificación Matricial Directa (CMD). Los resultados documentan 15 taxones maderables, con predominancia de la familia Fabaceae por su densidad y poder calorífico. Especies como Lysiloma acapulcense y Leucaena esculenta presentaron los mayores niveles de consenso cultural (UST>50 %). El análisis inferencial mostró diferencias altamente significativas en el conocimiento y consumo de dendrocombustible entre localidades (p<0.0001). Se identificó que 90 % de los productores emplean leña verde al menos en alguno de sus procesos, práctica que compromete la eficiencia energética y eleva la presión sobre la selva baja caducifolia. Se concluye que la sostenibilidad del sistema mezcalero exige integrar la gestión forestal comunitaria y la trazabilidad de la leña en marcos normativos como la NOM-070-SCFI-2016, así como el reconocimiento al recurso dendroenergético como un insumo tan crítico para la identidad y permanencia de la industria, como el propio agave.

Palabras clave: Artesanal, combustibles, dendroenergía, energía, etnobotánica, leña.

Introduction

In Mexico, firewood is a fundamental energy source for the rural population, both for domestic use and for traditional productive activities (Libert-Amico et al., 2024). Among these, the artisanal production of mezcal stands out, a process that demands considerable amounts of biomass and represents a key component of the economy and culture in various regions of the country. However, in the current debate on the sustainability of the mezcal industry, attention is often focused almost exclusively on the management and conservation of the Agave genus, without considering the critical role that wood energy plays as a fundamental input in the distillation process.

Under this premise, the present research is situated within a conceptual framework of holistic sustainability, recognizing that the long-term viability of these biocultural systems depends on integrated forest management. This approach considers firewood not only as an extractable resource but also as an essential ecosystem service for rural energy security. Therefore, the analysis of natural resources needed for mezcal distillation must necessarily extend beyond agave plants (Torres-García & Delgado-Lemus, 2019).

Previous studies in states such as Michoacán, Oaxaca and Puebla have documented the preferential use of species from Quercus, Lysiloma and Prosopis genera, valued for their high calorific value and their ability to impart distinctive organoleptic characteristics to mezcal (Torres-García & Delgado-Lemus, 2019; Jiménez-Mendoza et al., 2023). The use of these taxa is integrated into traditional knowledge systems in which forest resources have multiple uses (timber, fodder or medicine), increasing their socio-ecological value and justifying their technical selection by producers (García-Maceda, 2024).

However, the unregulated use of these resources carries risks of overexploitation and ecosystem degradation (López-Santiago et al., 2019). Despite the importance of the mezcal industry in other regions of the country, a lack of systematic information persists regarding the dendroenergetic species used, specifically in northern Guerrero, as well as the technical and cultural criteria that guide their use. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the main woody species used in mezcal production in four localities in this region, characterize their uses, and evaluate their cultural importance, in order to propose a basis for sustainable forest management that harmonizes traditional production with the conservation of local biodiversity.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in the northen region of the state of Guerrero, Mexico. Four sites were intentionally selected due to their mezcal-making tradition and distinct socioecological characteristics (Figure 1): El Calvario, Apetlanca, Temalac and Mezquitlán. The region presents high levels of marginalization and a diversity of climates and vegetation types (Instituto Nacional de Geografía y Estadística [Inegi], 2020; Consejo Nacional de Población [Conapo], 2021), as detailed in Table 1.

Figure 1. Location of the study sites in the northern region of Guerrero, Mexico.

Table 1. Biophysical and sociocultural context and population coverage of mezcal producers by site.

Gm = Degree of marginalization; Tv = Type of vegetation; Tpm = Total number of mezcal producers; Tpme = Total number of mezcal producers interviewed; Sbc = Tropical deciduous forest. Source: Conapo (2021); Inegi (2020).

Population and sample

The target population consisted of 160 active mezcal producers in the four selected locations. A non-probability sampling method was used, achieving 50 % coverage (80 informants). The sample size was justified based on the theoretical saturation criterion, the point at which collecting additional data did not generate new categories of analysis or records of species other than those already documented (Hernández-Sampieri, 2014). The representativeness achieved, which ranged from 40 to 68 % per location, allowed for robust inferences regarding dendroenergetic management practices in the region. Limitations of the study include the inherent bias of voluntary participation and the exclusion of producers who, due to seasonality or temporary migration, were not active during the data collection period.

Data collection and seasonal justification

Information was obtained through semi-structured interviews (46 items) validated by ethnobotanical specialists and a pretest with five producers not included in the final sample. The study was timed to coincide with the dry season (January-April), the only period of artisanal mezcal production in northern Guerrero, due to the need for thermal control in pit ovens and stability in fermentation (Jiménez-Mendoza et al., 2023).

This design allowed for the real-time capture of technical data and minimized recall bias. Following the framework of Romero-Carazas et al. (2024), the variables included: (1) Sociodemographic (ethnicity, marginalization, access to resources); (2) Technical processes (details of pineapple cooking and distillation); (3) Ethnobotanical (preferences, perceived caloric value, and influence on flavor/quality); (4) Selection and sourcing (traditional identification and sources of supply); and (5) Management and additional uses (extraction, forage, construction, among others).

Botanical collection and identification

To ensure accurate taxonomic identification that included the phenological variations of the species, the collection phase of the biological material was carried out from June 2024 to December 2025. During this period, 16 field trips (four per locality) were conducted, accompanied by local guides, to collect samples at different phenological stages (flowering, fruiting, and vegetative state).

Three biological samples were obtained from each taxon, which were processed using the herbarium technique of Sánchez-González and González-Ledesma (2007) and deposited in the Herbarium of the Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero (UAGC) (Autonomous University of Guerrero). Taxonomic determination was performed using specialized keys (Pennington & Sarukhán, 2005) and comparison with reference specimens. This confirmed the identity of the species mentioned by the producers during the interviews.

Data analysis

Quantitative data were processed using SPSS statistical software version 25 (International Business Machines (IBM), 2022) to obtain descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, and standard deviations), while qualitative data underwent content analysis and thematic categorization. The study of biocultural importance and pressure on the resource was based on the following indices:

Use Value Index (UVI). This index determines the versatility of species according to the diversity of uses and their frequency of mention (Olea-Reséndiz et al., 2022). It was calculated using the following formula:

     (1)

Where:

ΣUᵢ_s = Total sum of the number of uses mentioned by each informant (i), for each species (s)

nᵢ_s = Number of interviewed informants

TRAMIL Significant Use Level (UST). This evaluates the social consensus on the use of a specific category. The methodology proposed by Boulogne et al. (2011) was used for its calculation.

     (2)

Where:

Use of species = Number of mentions for each species

n_is= Number of informants surveyed

Species with UST≥20 % were considered significant (Zambrano-Intriago et al., 2015).

Use Value (UV). This allows for the quantification and comparison of the importance of plant species based on informant consensus, which is fundamental for prioritizing taxa in management and conservation programs. To prevent the total number of specific uses from biasing the results, a method is proposed in which each use category has a maximum value of one (1); if a species has several uses within a single category, the unit is divided equally among them. In this way, the maximum importance value of a taxon is determined by the number of categories analyzed and not by the number of different uses, ensuring a balanced assessment of its functional relevance and facilitating the design of sustainable use strategies (Marín-Corba et al., 2005).

Direct Matrix Classification (DMC). A participatory technique for ranking resources according to yield, availability, and quality. A scale of 1 to 4 was used to generate an index of importance or scarcity (Martin, 2004).

     (3)

Where:

DMC = Direct matrix classification for species j

Σ={i=1}^{n} = Sum from informant 1 to informant n

^V{ij} = Value assigned by informant i to species j

Inferential analysis

All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS statistical software version 25 (IBM, 2022). Prior to the analysis, the distribution of the variables was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test, which determined the use of non-parametric methods due to the lack of normality. The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to compare ethnobotanical knowledge and fuel consumption among localities, as well as to compare the scale of annual production among preferred species. Additionally, Pearson's chi-squared test was used to evaluate the association between species preference and community of origin. Finally, the Mann-Whitney test was used to determine variations in biomass consumption according to the distillery's ownership status (owned or leased). All analyses were performed with a 95 % confidence level.

Results and Discussion

Socio-productive characterization of mezcal producers

The 80 producers interviewed ranged in age from 20 to 77 years, with an average age of 43 to 56 years, and limited participation from young people. Their production experience varied from 10 to 18 years on average by location. Only 34 % (n=27) owned their factories, while 66 % (n=53) operated them under a lease (Table 2).

Table 2. Socio-productive profile and scale of mezcal production by locality.

Production is concentrated between February and May, with average volumes per producer ranging from 60 to 1 000 L (Table 2). The most commonly used agave species were Agave angustifolia Haw. and Agave cupreata Trel. & A. Berger, and to a lesser extent Agave rhodacantha Trel., Agave salmiana Otto ex Salm-Dyck and Agave americana var. oaxacensis Gentry. Mezcal is sold informally in bulk for between MXN $150.00 and $250.00 per liter. These variations in the scale of production are due to differences in access to raw materials, capital, and marketing channels; factors that also influence the pressure on wood resources (Toribio-Solis et al., 2024).

In the cultural context, producers perform rituals to bless the ovens, thus integrating the production process into the local biocultural heritage. This practice is carried out with the purpose of obtaining divine assistance to achieve an adequate quantity and high-quality mezcal production. Mezcal production is an economic activity that complements subsistence agriculture (corn), and is also fundamental to the family and local economy (Sánchez-Jiménez, 2024).

Identification and distribution of dendroenergetic species

Fifteen tree species used as firewood in the cooking and distillation processes of mezcal were identified (Table 3). The distribution of taxa varied considerably among localities. Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) Benth. (tepeguaje) and Leucaena esculenta (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) Benth. (guaje rojo) were present in two and three localities, respectively, demonstrating broad ecological adaptation and cultural acceptance. In contrast, species such as Haematoxylum brasiletto H. Karst. (palo de Brasil) y Ziziphus mexicana Rose (tepemezquite) was only recorded in Mezquitlán, associated with specific ecological conditions of a warm subhumid climate and low thorny forest vegetation (Table 1), suggesting a localized preference or restricted availability due to specific ecological conditions (Flores-Villela & Gerez, 1994).

Table 3. Dendroenergetic species identified in four localities of the northern region of Guerrero, Mexico.

EC = El Calvario; AP = Apetlanca; TM = Temalac; MZ = Mezquitlán.

The prevalence of the Fabaceae family in Northern Guerrero (10 of the 15 recorded species) confirms a forest management pattern that exhibits a marked functional convergence with other mezcal-producing regions of the country. When these results are compared with those reported for Michoacán and Oaxaca, where the use of legumes from the genera Lysiloma and Prosopis, as well as Quercus spp., predominates (Torres-García & Delgado-Lemus, 2019), it becomes evident that the producer's selection responds to an ethnobotanical selectivity aimed at optimizing the energy efficiency of the distillation process. This preference is based on key technical attributes such as the high wood density, high calorific value, and remarkable resprouting capacity of the taxa used (Jiménez-Mendoza et al., 2023).

Under this approach, the research transcends the regional inventory to propose a model in which the quality of artisanal mezcal and the sustainability of the industry depend directly on the technical management of biomass, a critical link to mitigate anthropogenic pressure on the ecosystems of low deciduous forest.

Cultural importance and use patterns

The applied ethnobotanical indices revealed a gradient of cultural importance among the species (Table 4). Lysiloma acapulcense obtained the highest Use value index (UVI=4.11) and TRAMIL Significant Use Level (UST=58.75 %), followed by Leucaena esculenta (UVI=3.37, UST=56.25 %). These values reflect its frequent and multifunctional use, as up to eight different uses were recorded per species (fuel, fodder, timber, living fences, posts, food, ritual, and organic fertilizer).

Table 4. Uses of the species used as firewood, Use Value Index (UVI), Significant Use Level (UST), Use Value (UV) and Direct Matrix Classification (DMC).

C = Edible; MA = Timber; CV = Live fences; P = Posts; AO = Organic fertilizer; F = Fodder; CB = Fuel; RI = Ritual.

The multifunctionality of these species is a finding consistent with ethnobotanical studies in other rural regions of Mexico. Rodríguez-Hernández et al. (2024) and López-Santiago et al. (2019) also documented that woody taxa valued as fuel often have complementary uses in traditional medicine, construction, and food. This versatility increases their cultural and economic value, but can intensify harvesting pressure, requiring integrated management strategies.

The Use Value (UV) ranged from 7 (tepeguaje) to 4 (species such as palo de Brasil). High UV values indicate a concentration of use on a few species, which, if not followed by management practices, could lead to local overexploitation. Andrade-Limas et al. (2025) have documented forest cover losses associated with the intensive use of oak in Tamaulipas, a warning applicable to tepeguaje in Guerrero if its extraction is not regulated.

Heterogeneity in ethnobotanical selectivity

The use of dendroenergetic resources in northern Guerrero is not uniform, as there is marked heterogeneity in both traditional knowledge and intensity of use. The Kruskal-Wallis test confirmed highly significant differences in the richness of known species among localities (H=79.00; p<0.0001). While El Calvario and Temalac recorded an average of 6.0 species, knowledge in Apetlanca was limited to 4.0. This disparity suggests selectivity conditioned by the availability of taxa in the immediate environment (Torres-García & Delgado-Lemus, 2019).

When comparing the results with other mezcal-producing regions, the number of species recorded in this study (15) is lower than the 24 cited for Michoacán or the more than 30 documented in the Valles Centrales de Oaxaca (Torres-García & Delgado-Lemus, 2019; Jiménez-Mendoza et al., 2023). However, there is a functional convergence in the preference for the Fabaceae family (Lysiloma spp., Leucaena spp. and Prosopis spp.). This preference is based on shared technical criteria: high basic wood density and a calorific value greater than 19 MJ kg^-1 (Jiménez-Mendoza et al., 2023), attributes that guarantee the thermal stability necessary for the hydrolysis of agave fructans.

Consumption dynamics, production scale and energy efficiency

Energy demand showed critical variations among communities (H=62.72; p<0.0001), ranging from 620.8 kg (El Calvario) to 1 290.6 kg (Mezquitlán) per cycle. Inferential analysis demonstrated that the annual production scale is the determining factor in the pressure on the resource (H=14.15; p<0.001), since larger-volume producers opt for taxa with denser wood, such as Quercus spp. and Lysiloma tergeminum Benth. (pata de cabra), which exerts selective pressure on their populations.

A critical finding is the predominant use of green firewood in at least one of the mezcal production stages (90 %) compared to dry firewood (10 %; Figure 2). Although green firewood is culturally valued for the slow release of steam, necessary for baking the agave stalks; from a forest thermodynamics perspective, this practice implies a severe loss of efficiency. Much of the energy released during combustion is consumed as latent heat of vaporization of the water contained in the fresh wood, reducing the net calorific value and doubling the amount of biomass required compared to using dry wood (Barrientos-Rivera et al., 2020). Furthermore, the incomplete combustion of green wood increases the emission of particulate matter and volatile organic compounds, which affects the carbon footprint of artisanal mezcal.

A and B = Green oak firewood and dry firewood of various species in Temalac; C = Preparing the kiln with tepeguaje wood and rocks in Temalac; D = Distillation in El Calvario.

Figure 2. Representation of wood types and their use in the cooking and distillation processes of mezcal.

Governance, certification and sustainable markets

The lack of correlation between factory ownership (owned or rented) and consumption (p=0.98) confirms that pressure on resources is a structural challenge that transcends the producer's socioeconomic status. Currently, frameworks such as NOM-070-SCFI-2016 (Secretaría de Economía [SE], 2017) focus traceability exclusively on the Agave genus and omit the management of dendroenergetic resources, which constitute the forgotten link in the production chain (SE, 2017; Torres-García & Delgado-Lemus, 2019).

Starting from the growing demand from specialized markets for sustainability certifications, the Use value index (UVI) and Significant use level (UST) documented here provide a replicable technical basis for the design of community forest management plans. The transition to sustainable markets requires that mezcal certification include the legal origin of firewood and the adoption of more efficient technologies (such as improved kilns) that allow the use of dry wood. This would not only align production with national energy transition goals but also allow producers in Guerrero to access higher value-added market niches based on the comprehensive socio-environmental traceability of the product (Corona-Terán & Rutiaga-Quiñones, 2025; Jiménez-Mendoza et al., 2023).

Conclusions

The characterization of the dendroenergetic flora in northern Guerrero reveals robust ethnobotanical knowledge, with the identification of 15 timber species and a predominance of the Fabaceae family, due to the high density and calorific value of the species used. However, the research demonstrates that this knowledge is not homogeneous; the spatial heterogeneity identified through the Kruskal-Wallis test confirms that traditional knowledge and the intensity of use are conditioned by the microregion and the scale of production in each locality. The coverage of 50 % of the total producer population gives these results high representativeness and consolidates a solid baseline for forest resource management in the state.

From an energy efficiency perspective, the predominant use of green firewood (90 %) represents a critical challenge for the sustainability of the production chain. This practice, common in various mezcal-producing regions of the country, generates a significant energy loss due to latent heat of evaporation, increasing human pressure on the tropical dry forest by demanding larger volumes of biomass to compensate for thermal inefficiency. This finding underscores the fact that the sustainability of mezcal should not be limited solely to the management of the Agave genus, but rather requires the mandatory integration of traceability and management of the dendroenergetic resource.

Finally, in the national context, the results demonstrate the urgent need to update regulatory frameworks, such as NOM-070-SCFI-2016, to incorporate clean or sustainable energy certification criteria. The high dependence on leased factories (66 %) suggests that conservation policies should focus on community forest management schemes and local nurseries of native species (such as tepeguaje and guaje rojo), to ensure that the global boom in mezcal does not result in irreversible degradation of the forest ecosystems that sustain its biocultural identity.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the participating producers from the study communities who made this research possible. The first author gratefully acknowledges the scholarship awarded by the Secretariat of Science, Humanities, Technology and Innovation (Secihti) for her Master's studies. The authors express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable observations and suggestions, which significantly contributed to improving the quality and clarity of this manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in their contributions, such that the published data will not provide them with any professional, employment, or financial benefit.

Contribution by author

Viridiana Álvarez González: fieldwork, data collection and main drafting of the manuscript; Héctor Ramón Segura Pacheco: study conception, general supervision of the work and statistical analysis; Elías Hernández Castro: review of the manuscript and fieldwork; Natividad D. Herrera Castro: methodological validation, taxonomic support, processing, handling, and identification of plant specimens; Eduardo Sánchez Jiménez: initial design and final revision of the manuscript; Jorge Huerta Zavala: study concept, fieldwork, and writing of the manuscript.

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