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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">remcf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de ciencias forestales</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. de cienc. forestales</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2007-1132</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.29298/rmcf.v16i91.1575</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo de revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Potencial del uso de bioestimulantes en el manejo del arbolado urbano</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7573-5285</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Cuevas Cruz</surname>
						<given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3053-472X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Martínez-Trinidad</surname>
						<given-names>Tomás</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo-Centro Regional Universitario del Anáhuac. México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro Regional Universitario del Anáhuac</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Colegio de Posgraduados, Campus Montecillo, Posgrado en Ciencias Forestales. México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Colegio de Postgraduados</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Colegio de Posgraduados</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Posgrado en Ciencias Forestales</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>*</label>Autor por correspondencia; correo-e: <email>tomtz@colpos.mx</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn1">
					<label>Conflicto de intereses</label>
					<p> Los autores declaran no tener conflicto de intereses.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="con" id="fn2">
					<label>Contribución por autor</label>
					<p> Juan Carlos Cuevas Cruz: revisión de literatura, elaboración del manuscrito; Tomás Martínez-Trinidad: elaboración, revisión y reestructuración del manuscrito.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>05</day>
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Sep-Oct</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>16</volume>
			<issue>91</issue>
			<fpage>4</fpage>
			<lpage>24</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>19</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>Los bioestimulantes son sustancias que, sin ser nutrientes, pesticidas o mejoradores del suelo, promueven el crecimiento de las plantas cuando se aplican en pequeñas cantidades. Se agrupan en cuatro categorías: ácidos, microorganismos, compuestos bioactivos de origen vegetal y otros. Su aplicación en arbolado urbano busca mejorar la vitalidad y resistencia ante condiciones de estrés. Entre los bioestimulantes empleados destacan extractos de algas marinas, ácidos húmicos, carbohidratos no estructurales, paclobutrazol y microorganismos benéficos. Estos han mostrado eficacia frente al estrés por sequía, salinidad o hídrico, además de fortalecer el sistema inmunitario de los árboles. Productos comerciales a base de ácidos húmicos han mejorado la supervivencia, el vigor de raíces y brotes, y la vitalidad general, evidenciado por resultados en el aumento en la fluorescencia de clorofila. Por otro lado, la aplicación de almidón y glucosa eleva los niveles de almidón en el tronco, lo cual es deseable ya que su reducción se asocia con la muerte en condiciones de estrés severo. Entre los bioestimulantes, los hongos micorrízicos han sido los más estudiados en el arbolado urbano, ya que proporcionan beneficios consistentes en variables de crecimiento y adaptación, incluso a nivel molecular. Finalmente, aunque gran parte del conocimiento sobre bioestimulantes proviene de la agricultura, su potencial en arboricultura es alto. Este trabajo presenta una revisión sobre su uso en condiciones de campo y ambientes semicontrolados; así como, las limitaciones que enfrenta su aplicación en el manejo del arbolado urbano.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave</title>
				<kwd>Arboricultura</kwd>
				<kwd>dasonomía urbana</kwd>
				<kwd>estrés</kwd>
				<kwd>micorrizas</kwd>
				<kwd>paclobutrazol</kwd>
				<kwd>vitalidad</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="55"/>
				<page-count count="21"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>Los árboles con buena vitalidad son valiosos en las ciudades, porque proporcionan de manera más efectiva servicios ecosistémicos como el secuestro de CO<sub>2</sub>, la reducción del ruido y la purificación del aire (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Derkzen et al., 2015</xref>). Además, brindan protección a los peatones y a la infraestructura contra las fuertes ráfagas de viento, regulan la temperatura, y dan valor recreativo, que está relacionado con la salud y la calidad de vida de las personas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Wang et al., 2022</xref>). Sin embargo, el crecimiento y desarrollo de los árboles en ambientes urbanos enfrenta muchos desafíos: suelos pobres y contaminados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Rosier et al., 2021</xref>), estrés hídrico debido a elevadas temperaturas por islas de calor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Marchin et al., 2025</xref>) y suelos salinos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Zwiazek et al., 2019</xref>); factores que, en su conjunto, debilitan al árbol y le generan cambios morfológicos, fisiológicos y bioquímicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Seleiman et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>La aplicación de bioestimulantes o compuestos orgánicos ha sido una práctica que ayuda a mejorar la vitalidad de los árboles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Percival, 2010</xref>). Los bioestimulantes se definen como sustancias que, sin pertenecer a la categoría de nutrimentos, mejoradores del suelo o pesticidas, aplicados en cantidades mínimas promueven el crecimiento de las plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">du Jardin, 2015</xref>). La mayoría de los bioestimulantes que se utilizan son mezclas de sustancias químicas derivadas de un proceso biológico o de la extracción de materiales biológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Yakhin et al., 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Se clasifican en cuatro grupos: ácidos, microorganismos, sustancias bioactivas de origen vegetal y de otro tipo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hasanuzzaman et al., 2021</xref>). En la categoría de bioestimulantes vegetales se distinguen seis tipos: quitosano, ácidos húmicos y fúlvicos, hidrolizados de proteínas animales y vegetales, fosfitos, extractos de algas y silicio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Zulfiqar et al., 2024</xref>). Además, se incluyen la acrilamida, aminoácidos, bacterias promotoras del crecimiento vegetal, carbohidratos, hongos ectomicorrízicos y endomicorrízicos, así como vitaminas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Percival, 2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>En árboles urbanos se han aplicado sustancias húmicas, hidrolizado de proteínas y extractos de alga (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al., 2024</xref>), además de compuestos químicos como el paclobutrazol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2013b</xref>) y los carbohidratos no estructurales al suelo alrededor de árboles bajo condiciones de estrés (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>). Sin embargo, la aplicación de bioestimulantes se ha usado principalmente en cultivos agrícolas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Zulfiqar et al., 2024</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Bioestimulantes aplicados en árboles</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Extractos de alga marina y ácidos húmicos</title>
					<p>Son considerados bioestimulantes porque contienen aminoácidos, vitaminas, hormonas de crecimiento y en ocasiones macro y micronutrientes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Ördög et al., 2004</xref>). Los ácidos húmicos son compuestos orgánicos formados a partir de la humificación química y biológica de la materia vegetal y animal, que han demostrado aumentar el crecimiento de las plantas y mejorar la asimilación de nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Leite et al., 2020</xref>). Pertenecen al grupo de sustancias húmicas que incluye el ácido fúlvico, huminas, aminoácidos, ácidos grasos y ácidos orgánicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hasanuzzaman et al., 2021</xref>). El método de aplicación puede ser foliar, sobre las raíces y la combinación de estas. Los extractos se incorporan al suelo mediante fertirriego, goteo o empapado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Jayaraman &amp; Ali, 2015</xref>). El uso de bioestimulantes comerciales a base de ácidos húmicos en <italic>Betula pendula</italic> Roth y <italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> L. mejoró el vigor de raíces, brotes y tasas de supervivencia, en los que se observaron aumentos en las emisiones de fluorescencia de clorofila (0.6 testigo <italic>vs.</italic> 0.7 mejor tratamiento Fv/Fm) y contenidos de clorofila (13.5 testigo <italic>vs.</italic> 17.1 mejor tratamiento), con aplicaciones de 10 a 30 mL L<sup>-1</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Barnes &amp; Percival, 2006</xref>).</p>
					<p>Algunas especies arbóreas en áreas urbanas bajo condiciones de estrés por sequía, luego de la aplicación de ácido húmico y extracto de algas (50 mL, cinco aplicaciones), únicamente mejoraron en el crecimiento en altura, sin que se pudieran relacionar efectos positivos por el uso de los bioestimulantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al., 2024</xref>). Esta tendencia de nula respuesta bajo estrés por sequía también se detectó en <italic>Quercus ilex</italic> L., <italic>Ilex aquifolium</italic> L., <italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> y <italic>Fagus sylvatica</italic> L., en los que la evaluación del producto <italic>Maxicrop Original</italic>
 <sup>®</sup> (Reino Unido), <italic>Bioplex</italic>
 <sup>®</sup> (Reino Unido) y <italic>Redicrop</italic>
 <sup>®</sup> (Reino Unido) con ingrediente activo de extracto de algas, extracto de algas+ácidos húmicos y extracto de algas con actividad de citoquinina, respectivamente, no mostró efectos benéficos en Fv/Fm, ni en variables relacionadas con el estrés (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks &amp; Percival, 2014</xref>). Los resultados pueden estar relacionados con las dosis, pues se ha identificado que los efectos deseados se muestran hasta la aplicación de 10 veces la dosis recomendada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Chen et al., 2004</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aplicaciones de carbohidratos no estructurales (CNE)</title>
					<p>Son macromoléculas que sirven de sustrato para el metabolismo primario y secundario de las plantas. Glucosa, fructosa o galactosa son CNE empleados como sustratos para la respiración y síntesis de otras moléculas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>). Cuando los árboles enfrentan condiciones de estrés como sequía prolongada o salinidad reducen la asignación de carbohidratos en sus tejidos y en sus mecanismos de defensa de osmorregulación y osmoprotección, y se agotan por completo sus reservas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Zhang et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p>La aplicación de carbohidratos en forma de almidón y glucosa en árboles tiene como propósito incrementar los niveles energéticos del árbol a fin de destinar las mayores reservas a su crecimiento y favorezcan su vitalidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2013a</xref>). En árboles de 0.05 m de <italic>Dn</italic> y 2.0 metros de altura de <italic>Jacaranda mimosifolia</italic> D. Don., la aplicación de 10 L de solución al suelo (80 g·L<sup>-1</sup> de glucosa con 80 g·L<sup>-1</sup> de sacarosa), mejoró la materia seca de raíces (<italic>P</italic>≤0.05) después de 371 días con una concentración de carbohidratos de 0.034 g, mientras que el tratamiento testigo alcanzó 0.006 g (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Morales-Gallegos et al., 2020</xref>). Mayores concentraciones de glucosa en las raíces se han asociado con una absorción de nutrientes más eficaz y con aumentos de N en las hojas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Shao et al., 2023</xref>). La glucosa participa en procesos de transporte de NO 3 − y NH 4 + , por lo que su presencia en la raíz favorece el diálogo molecular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Zhou et al., 2009</xref>).</p>
					<p>Se han hecho aplicaciones de almidón y glucosa en concentraciones de 120 g L<sup>-1</sup> al suelo a 0.5 m de distancia de árboles jóvenes de <italic>Quercus virginiana</italic> Mill., aunque se observaron mayores concentraciones de glucosa en brotes; las firmas de <italic>δ</italic> 
 <sup>13</sup>C no arrojaron evidencia que se debió al suministro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2009</xref>).</p>
					<p>En contraste, otro estudio con <italic>J</italic>. <italic>mimosifolia</italic> con aplicación de 80 g L<sup>-1</sup> de glucosa en el tronco (árboles de 27 cm de <italic>Dn</italic>), aumentó más de dos veces las reservas de almidón en el tronco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Morales-Gallegos et al., 2019</xref>). Mayores reservas de almidón ayudan a los árboles a soportar condiciones de estrés, ya que se ha determinado que la disminución de almidón a niveles casi nulos está relacionada con su muerte (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Zhang et al., 2021</xref>). Por lo tanto, los árboles sobremaduros exhiben agotamiento de almidón, glucosa, fructosa y sacarosa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>). En los tejidos leñosos, la degradación de almidón se presenta en otoño y primavera, por lo que disponer de reservas es crucial para tolerar bajas temperaturas y sostener su crecimiento en primavera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Noronha et al., 2018</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aplicación de paclobutrazol (PBZ)</title>
					<p>Este es un compuesto químico conocido por inhibir el crecimiento, promover la ramificación, estimular la formación del sistema radical y aumentar la resistencia de las plantas al estrés (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Jiang et al., 2019</xref>). En árboles de <italic>Populus alba</italic> L. sometidos a podas severas, la aplicación cercana al tronco de 0.8 g de PBZ favoreció una mayor concentración de azúcares no reductores en el tronco y follaje. Sin embargo, las variables de crecimiento y de vitalidad no se vieron influenciadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2013b</xref>). En árboles de <italic>Fraxinus americana</italic> L., <italic>F. quadrangulata</italic> Michx. y <italic>F. mandshurica</italic> Rupr., la aplicación de PBZ aumentó la proporción raíz: biomasa total en 9 y 10 %, y resultó positiva para mejorar la absorción de agua y nutrientes, bajo las condiciones de sequía y suelos urbanos poco fértiles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Tanis et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
					<p>En las raíces de árboles frutales sometidos a estrés hídrico, se ha encontrado que aplicaciones de 1 200 mg planta<sup>-1</sup> aumentan linealmente los contenidos de azucares solubles totales, almidón y azúcares reductores, e inhiben el crecimiento de los árboles y favorecen su floración (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">de Sousa-Oliveira et al., 2022</xref>). Por lo tanto, el uso de PBZ en árboles presenta variación de los resultados entre especies, parámetros de crecimiento y concentraciones.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Hongos micorrízicos como bioestimulantes microbianos</title>
					<p>Los bioestimulantes a base de microorganismos se consideran un subgrupo de la familia heterogénea de bioestimulantes, ya que estimulan procesos bioquímicos y fisiológicos que favorecen la disponibilidad de nutrimentos, fortalecen el sistema de respuesta de las plantas y, en consecuencia, mejoran su rendimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Joly et al., 2021</xref>). Los hongos ectomicorrízocos (HEM) y arbusculares (HMA), son reconocidos como bioestimulantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Sun &amp; Shahrajabian, 2023</xref>), que están fuertemente relacionados con el crecimiento y vitalidad de árboles en ambientes urbanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Rusterholz et al., 2020</xref>); por ejemplo, <italic>Carya ovata</italic> (Mill.) K. Koch con 80 % de colonización micorrízica tiene una probabilidad de supervivencia de 1.0 y <italic>Quercus rubra</italic> L. requiere 100 % de colonización para tener una probabilidad cercana a 0.8 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Tonn &amp; Ibáñez, 2017</xref>).</p>
					<p>La inoculación de plantas de <italic>Fraxinus uhdei</italic> (Wenz.) Lingelsh. con <italic>Pisolithus tinctorius</italic> (Pers.) Coker &amp; Couch (HEM) y <italic>Glomus intraradices</italic> N. C. Schenck &amp; G. S. Sm. (HMA), ahora renombrada como <italic>Rhizoglomus intraradices</italic> (N. C. Schenck &amp; G. S. Sm.) Sieverd., G. A. Silva &amp; Oehl (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Sieverding et al., 2014</xref>), en sitios severamente erosionados y con bajos contenidos de materia orgánica (0.78 %), mostró una supervivencia de 64 % a los 23 meses del establecimiento, y de 46 % en plantas no inoculadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Báez-Pérez et al., 2017</xref>). La inoculación de <italic>P. tinctorius</italic> tiene efectos positivos en el crecimiento de la raíz de árboles, pues aumenta 1.89 veces más el peso seco de raíces y mejora el potencial de la planta para la absorción de nutrimentos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Sebastiana et al., 2021</xref>). También, la inoculación de <italic>F. uhdei</italic> con <italic>Lactarius deliciosus</italic> (L.) Gray y <italic>Laccaria laccata</italic> (Scop.) Cooke (HEM) en concentraciones de 2.5×10<sup>5</sup> y 1×10<sup>6</sup> establecidas en un sustrato de Jal contaminado con metales pesados, manifestó mejor crecimiento en altura (47 cm) y peso seco (12 g), mientras que las plantas sin inocular alcanzaron una altura de 38 cm y peso seco de 9 g (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Pérez-Baltazar et al., 2020</xref>). La inoculación de plantas de especies arbóreas con HMA tiene efectos positivos durante el trasplante de vivero a sitios urbanos, e influye de manera significativa en la supervivencia de las plantas, incluso más determinante que las dosis de fertilizantes aplicadas en la etapa de vivero (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Fini et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
					<p>La interacción HMA-planta huésped puede reducir la biosíntesis de flavonoides, y afecta la resistencia de los álamos, por lo que es necesario determinar la asociación HMA-planta huésped que genera interacciones positivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Jiang et al., 2022</xref>). En plántulas de <italic>Populus alba</italic>×<italic>P. berolinensis</italic> inoculadas con <italic>Glomus mosseae</italic> (T. H. Nicolson &amp; Gerd.) Gerd. &amp; Trappe (15 propágulos g de inóculo), aumentó la cantidad de metabolitos con propiedades insecticidas en el follaje: cumarina, estaquidrina, artocarpina, norizalpinina, ácido abiético, 6-formylumbeliferona y ácido vainílico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Shuai et al., 2021</xref>). Mientras que el uso de <italic>Laccaria bicolor</italic> (Maire) P. D. Orton en plántulas de <italic>Populus trichocarpa</italic> Torr. &amp; A. Gray para combatir el cancro del álamo <italic>Botryosphaeria dothidea</italic> (Moug.) Ces. &amp; De Not. mostró que 12 de 661 genes están relacionados con la resistencia a enfermedades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Dong et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p>La simbiosis raíz-HMA otorga otras habilidades al árbol, mejora aspectos bioquímicos como la regulación de metabolitos con fuerte capacidad antioxidante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Calvo-Polanco et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>). También en árboles de uso urbano y especies ornamentales aumentan los niveles de fitohormonas, ácido indol-3-acético (IAA), giberelinas (GA3) y la relación IAA-ácido abscísico (ABA) y GA3-ABA. Por ejemplo, en <italic>Cupressus arizonica</italic> Greene al establecer simbiosis con <italic>Rhizophagus irregularis</italic> (Błaszk., Wubet, Renker &amp; Buscot) C. Walker &amp; A. Schüßler y <italic>Funneliformis mosseae</italic> (T. H. Nicolson &amp; Gerd.) C. Walker &amp; A. Schüßler (sinonimia de <italic>Glomus mosseae</italic>) en condiciones de sequía aumenta 122 % sus niveles de prolina y el contenido de malondialdehído (MDA) -enzima antioxidante- aumentó 68 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aalipour et al., 2020</xref>). La respuesta de este tipo de bioestimulantes son de tipo anticipatoria, ya que están dirigidos a la producción de planta que será establecida en el ambiente urbano, por lo que su uso en árboles maduros no se considera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Zwiazek et al., 2019</xref>); sin embargo, se recomienda la aplicación de enmiendas orgánicas en árboles maduros ya que favorecen mayores porcentajes de colonización de hongos micorrízicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ali et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
					<p>El uso de enmiendas a base de biocarbón y compostas en árboles de <italic>Melia azedarach</italic> L. y <italic>Ficus macrocarpa</italic> Blume mejoró las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo, observándose una disminución de la materia orgánica, calcio y fosforo disponible en el suelo, indicando la absorción de nutrientes por parte de los árboles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Shiu et al., 2022</xref>). Suelo rizosférico de árboles en un ambiente urbano, con pronunciadas deficiencias nutrimentales, presenta baja colonización micorrízica, por lo que las enmiendas orgánicas son un factor que permite la simbiosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Alam et al., 2025</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Potencial y limitaciones en el uso de bioestimulantes</title>
				<p>La revisión se enfocó en cuatro alternativas de una lista extensa de bioestimulantes que han demostrado beneficios en plantas perennes. Los bioestimulantes a base de microorganismos se consideran los de mayor potencial para ser empleados en árboles de uso urbano, puesto que con el avance de las ciencias <italic>ómicas</italic>, se tiene mayor comprensión sobre su funcionamiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bizjak et al., 2023</xref>). Mecanismos como la fijación de N<sub>2</sub>, biosíntesis de hormonas, regulación de especies reactivas de oxígeno, expresión de genes relacionados con diferentes tipos de estrés, son algunas de las capacidades que exhiben hongos y bacterias que establecen diferentes niveles de asociación o simbiosis con los árboles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hasanuzzaman et al., 2021</xref>). Sin embargo, los microorganismos generan menores efectos positivos bajo las formas de producción convencional, por lo que es necesario diseñar protocolos con base en la problemática a resolver (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Abaurre et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Los extractos de algas y la combinación con ácidos húmicos no han generado respuestas positivas en el arbolado para uso urbano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks &amp; Percival, 2014</xref>). Entre las posibles razones del limitado éxito se ha analizado la calidad del producto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Yakhin et al., 2017</xref>). También se ha debatido sobre la forma de aplicación, principalmente esta se realiza en el suelo y probablemente esta sea una razón principal del por qué en ambientes urbanos no se tienen referencias positivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al., 2024</xref>). Por ejemplo, en árboles de manzano (<italic>Malus dom</italic>e<italic>stica</italic> (Suckow) Borkh.) la aplicación a 1 % (1 L 99 L<sup>-1</sup> agua) del producto <italic>Fertiactyl Starter</italic>
 <sup>®</sup> (Reino Unido) a base de algas marinas y ácidos húmicos, después de tres años, favorece tallos más gruesos con diferencias de 16.3 mm y 21.9 mm en comparación con árboles testigo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kapłan et al., 2021</xref>). Aplicaciones cada 20 días del producto de microalgas <italic>AgriAlgae</italic>
 <sup>®</sup> (Madrid, España) y algas <italic>Seaweed Mix</italic>
 <sup>®</sup> (Madrid, España) en árboles de olivo (<italic>Olea europaea</italic> L.) bajo un régimen de riego de 50 %, mejoran su área foliar en 26 y 44 %, y mantienen los niveles de conductancia estomática similares a plantas bajo régimen de riego de 100 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Graziani et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>Luego entonces ¿cómo se explica que en <italic>Quercus ilex</italic>, <italic>Ilex aquifolium</italic>, <italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> y <italic>Fagus sylvatica</italic>, siete productos de bioestimulantes, incluidos tres a base de algas, no generen ningún beneficio en el crecimiento y fisiología del árbol? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks &amp; Percival, 2014</xref>). Los suelos urbanos acentúan características desfavorables para el crecimiento y salud de los árboles, tales como pH elevado, compactación, suelos pobres en elementos minerales y contaminación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Rosier et al., 2021</xref>). Por ello, en condiciones extremas, los bioestimulantes a base de extractos de algas no se consideran una buena alternativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Ricci et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>La diversidad de productos es un factor que puede limitar el uso de bioestimulantes, cada uno con diferente ingrediente activo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Sun et al., 2024</xref>). En caso de que no se atiendan los protocolos de aplicación o no se tenga experiencia en su manejo, se pueden obtener resultados en la fisiología y morfología del árbol diferentes a los esperados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Sun &amp; Shahrajabian, 2023</xref>). También en la literatura se perciben contradicciones de tipo epistemológico, de tal manera que hay discrepancias sobre a qué se le llama bioestimulante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Yakhin et al., 2017</xref>). Esto genera un estado de indefinición sobre los alcances de esta tecnología empleada en árboles.</p>
				<p>El uso de bioestimulantes en el arbolado urbano a base de carbohidratos no estructurales, como la aplicación de glucosa y sacarosa, está restringido a pocas referencias. Sin embargo, en árboles frutales la aplicación de azúcares y aminoácidos es frecuente, puesto que su campo de aplicación es motivado por el mercado de frutas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Sun et al., 2024</xref>). Mientras que, en árboles de uso urbano, probablemente la falta de beneficios económicos directos ha limitado profundizar en la investigación, a fin de encontrar resultados más contundentes en la vitalidad de los árboles. A continuación, se presenta un resumen del uso potencial y las limitaciones en árboles en ambientes urbanos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Cuadro 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Uso y beneficios de sustancias bioestimulantes en árboles.</title>
						</caption>
						<table style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Tipo de bioestimulante</th>
									<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Especie</th>
									<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Beneficios sobre el árbol</th>
									<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Referencia</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">Extractos de alga marina</td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Quercus ilex</italic> L., <italic>Ilex</italic> <break/><italic>aquifolium</italic> L., <italic>Sorbus</italic> <break/><italic>aucuparia</italic> L. y <italic>Fagus</italic> <break/><italic>sylvatica</italic> L.</td>
									<td align="left">No mostró efectos benéficos <break/>en Fv/Fm, ni en variables <break/>relacionadas con el estrés</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks y Percival (2014)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Nueve especies</td>
									<td align="left">Crecimiento en altura</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al. (2024)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Ácidos húmicos (Ah)</td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Betula pendula</italic> Roth y <break/><italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> L.</td>
									<td align="left">Mejor Fv/Fm: 0.7 con Ah y <break/>0.6 sin Ah; mejor contenido <break/>de clorofila: 17.1 con Ah y <break/>13.5 sin Ah</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Barnes y Percival (2006)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Carbohidratos no estructurales</td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Jacaranda mimosifolia</italic><break/> D. Don</td>
									<td align="left">Mayor materia seca y <break/>concentración de <break/>carbohidratos</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Morales-Gallegos et al. (2020)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">Aplicación de <break/>paclobutrazol</td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Populus alba</italic> L.</td>
									<td align="left">Mayor concentración de <break/>azúcares no reductores en el <break/>tronco y follaje</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martínez-Trinidad et al. (2013b)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Fraxinus americana</italic> L., <break/><italic>F. quadrangulata</italic> Michx. <break/>y <italic>F. mandshurica</italic> Rupr.</td>
									<td align="left">Aumento en la proporción <break/>de raíz: biomasa total en 9 <break/>y 10 %</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Tanis et al. (2015)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="5" style="border-bottom: solid thin;">Hongos micorrízicos</td>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2"><italic>Fraxinus uhdei</italic> (Wenz.) <break/>Lingelsh.</td>
									<td align="left">Supervivencia de 64 % en <break/>planta inoculada. 46 % de <break/>sobrevivencia en planta no <break/>inoculada</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Báez-Pérez et al. (2017)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Mejora crecimiento en altura <break/>y peso seco: 47 cm y 12 g <break/>con inóculos y 38 cm y 9 g <break/>sin inocular</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Pérez-Baltazar et al. (2020)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Populus alba</italic>×<italic>P.</italic> <break/><italic>berolinensis</italic></td>
									<td align="left">Aumentó la cantidad de <break/>metabolitos con propiedades <break/>insecticidas en el follaje</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Jiang et al. (2022)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Populus trichocarpa</italic><break/> Torr. &amp; A. Gray</td>
									<td align="left">Expresión de 12 genes <break/>relacionados con la <break/>resistencia a enfermedades</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Dong et al. (2021)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid thin;"><italic>Cupressus arizonica</italic><break/> Greene</td>
									<td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid thin;">Aumenta 122 % sus niveles <break/>de prolina; el contenido de <break/>malondialdehído (MDA) -enzima antioxidante- <break/>aumentó 68 %</td>
									<td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid thin;">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aalipour et al. (2020)</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>En general, los resultados del uso de los bioestimulantes han sido limitados, en parte debido a factores como la ontogenia del árbol y la heterogeneidad ambiental de los entornos urbanos, que dificultan observar efectos consistentes en variables de crecimiento, fisiológicas o de acumulación de carbohidratos. Por ello, se propone considerar variables a nivel molecular, como la expresión de enzimas, proteínas y genes, para entender mejor los mecanismos de acción. Entre todos, los hongos micorrízicos destacan por la amplitud de evidencia sobre sus beneficios en crecimiento, biomasa radicular, altura, diámetro y absorción de nutrientes, además de su influencia positiva en la expresión génica relacionada con resistencia sistémica. No obstante, persiste el desafío de contar con inóculos eficientes y específicos para especies de interés. A pesar de la escasa literatura en ambientes urbanos, los cuatro tipos de bioestimulantes muestran potencial para ser utilizados en arboricultura, siempre que se profundice en aspectos clave como dosis, combinaciones, especies, tiempos y frecuencias de aplicación. Así, el uso de bioestimulantes representa una línea de investigación aún abierta y prometedora en el manejo del arbolado urbano.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p>Se agradece la beca de posgrado otorgada al primer autor por parte de la Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación (Secihti).</p>
		</ack>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Potential for the use of biostimulants in urban tree management</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<author-notes>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn3">
					<label>Conflict of interest</label>
					<p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn4">
					<label>Contribution by author</label>
					<p>Juan Carlos Cuevas Cruz: literature review, manuscript preparation; Tomás Martínez-Trinidad: preparation, revision and restructuring of the manuscript.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Biostimulants are substances that, although not classified as nutrients or pesticides, are soil improvers and promote plant growth when applied in small quantities. They are categorized into four groups: acids, microorganisms, bioactive compounds of plant origin, and others. Their application in urban trees aims to improve vitality and enhance resilience under stress conditions. Commonly used biostimulants include seaweed extracts, humic acids, non-structural carbohydrates, paclobutrazol, and beneficial microorganisms. These have shown effectiveness against drought, water, and salinity stress, and in strengthening the immune system of trees. Commercial biostimulants based on humic acids have improved survival rates, root and shoot vigor, and overall vitality, as evidenced by increased chlorophyll fluorescence. Additionally, the application of starch and glucose increases starch levels in tree trunks-an important factor, as starch depletion under severe stress is associated with tree mortality. Among biostimulants, mycorrhizal fungi are the most extensively studied in urban forestry, consistently demonstrating benefits in growth variables and stress adaptation, even at the molecular level. Finally, although most biostimulant-related knowledge comes from agricultural systems, their potential use in urban arboriculture is significant. This work presents a review of their application in field and semi-controlled environments, as well as the challenges associated with their use in urban tree management.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Arboriculture</kwd>
				<kwd>urban forestry</kwd>
				<kwd>stress</kwd>
				<kwd>mycorrhiza</kwd>
				<kwd>paclobutrazol</kwd>
				<kwd>vitality</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Trees with good vitality are valuable in cities because they more effectively provide ecosystem services such as CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration, noise reduction, and air purification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Derkzen et al., 2015</xref>). They also provide protection for pedestrians and infrastructure from strong winds, regulate temperature, and provide recreational value, which is linked to people's health and quality of life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Wang et al., 2022</xref>). However, tree growth and development in urban environments faces many challenges: poor and polluted soils (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Rosier et al., 2021</xref>), water stress due to high temperatures caused by heat islands (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Marchin et al., 2025</xref>), and saline soils (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Zwiazek et al., 2019</xref>), factors that, together, weaken trees and cause morphological, physiological, and biochemical changes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Seleiman et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>The application of biostimulants or organic compounds has been a practice that helps improve tree vitality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Percival, 2010</xref>). Biostimulants are defined as substances that, without belonging to the category of nutrients, soil improvers, or pesticides, when applied in minimal quantities promote plant growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">du Jardin, 2015</xref>). Most biostimulants used are mixtures of chemicals derived from a biological process or the extraction of biological materials (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Yakhin et al., 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>They are classified into four groups: acids, microorganisms, bioactive substances of plant origin, and other types (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hasanuzzaman et al., 2021</xref>). Six types are distinguished within the category of plant biostimulants: chitosan, humic and fulvic acids, animal and plant protein hydrolysates, phosphites, algae extracts, and silicon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Zulfiqar et al., 2024</xref>). Additionally, they include acrylamide, amino acids, plant growth-promoting bacteria, carbohydrates, ectomycorrhizal and endomycorrhizal fungi, and vitamins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Percival, 2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>Humic substances, protein hydrolysates, and algae extracts have been applied to urban trees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al., 2024</xref>). In addition to chemical compounds such as paclobutrazol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2013b</xref>) and non-structural carbohydrates to the soil around trees under stress conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>). However, the application of biostimulants has been mainly used in agricultural crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Zulfiqar et al., 2024</xref>).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Biostimulants applied to trees</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Seaweed extracts and humic acids</title>
						<p>They are considered biostimulants because they contain amino acids, vitamins, growth hormones, and sometimes macro- and micronutrients (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Ördög et al., 2004</xref>). Humic acids are organic compounds formed from the chemical and biological humification of plant and animal matter, which have been shown to increase plant growth and improve the assimilation of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Leite et al., 2020</xref>). They belong to the group of humic substances that includes fulvic acid, humins, amino acids, fatty acids, and organic acids (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hasanuzzaman et al., 2021</xref>). Application methods include foliar application, root application, or a combination of these. The extracts are incorporated into the soil through fertigation, drip irrigation, or drenching (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Jayaraman &amp; Ali, 2015</xref>). The use of commercial humic acid-based biostimulants in <italic>Betula pendula</italic> Roth and <italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> L. improved root and shoot vigor and survival rates, with increases in chlorophyll fluorescence emissions (0.6 control <italic>vs.</italic> 0.7 best treatment Fv/Fm) and chlorophyll contents (13.5 control <italic>vs.</italic> 17.1 best treatment) observed with applications of 10 to 30 mL L<sup>-1</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Barnes &amp; Percival, 2006</xref>).</p>
						<p>Some tree species in urban areas under drought stress conditions only improved height growth after the application of humic acid and seaweed extract (50 mL, five applications), with no positive effects related to the use of biostimulants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al., 2024</xref>). This trend of null response under drought stress was also detected in <italic>Quercus ilex</italic> L., <italic>Ilex aquifolium</italic> L., <italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> and <italic>Fagus sylvatica</italic> L., where the evaluation of the products Maxicrop Original<sup>®</sup> (United Kingdom), Bioplex<sup>®</sup> (United Kingdom) and Redicrop<sup>®</sup> (United Kingdom) with active ingredient of seaweed extract, seaweed extract+humic acids and seaweed extract with cytokinin activity, respectively, did not show beneficial effects on Fv/Fm, nor on stress-related variables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks &amp; Percival, 2014</xref>). The results may be dose-related, since it has been identified that the desired effects are shown up to the application of 10 times the recommended dose (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Chen et al., 2004</xref>).</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Nonstructural carbohydrate applications (NSCs)</title>
						<p>They are macromolecules that serve as substrates for the primary and secondary metabolism of plants. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are NSCs used as substrates for respiration and the synthesis of other molecules (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>). When trees face stress conditions such as prolonged drought or salinity, they reduce the allocation of carbohydrates in their tissues and in their osmoregulatory and osmoprotection defense mechanisms, and their reserves are completely depleted (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Zhang et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
						<p>The application of carbohydrates in the form of starch and glucose to trees aims to increase the tree's energy levels in order to allocate the greatest reserves to its growth and promote its vitality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2013a</xref>). In <italic>Jacaranda mimosifolia</italic> D. Don. trees measuring 0.05 m in diameter and 2.0 meters in height, the application of 10 L of a soil solution (80 g L<sup>-1</sup> glucose with 80 g L<sup>-1</sup> sucrose) improved root dry matter (<italic>P</italic>≤0.05) after 371 days with a carbohydrate concentration of 0.034 g, while the control treatment reached 0.006 g (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Morales-Gallegos et al., 2020</xref>). Higher root glucose concentrations have been associated with more efficient nutrient uptake and increased N in leaves (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Shao et al., 2023</xref>). Glucose is involved in NO 3 − and NH 4 + transport processes, so its presence in the root promotes molecular communication (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Zhou et al., 2009</xref>).</p>
						<p>Starch and glucose applications at concentrations of 120 g L<sup>-1</sup> have been made to the soil 0.5 m away from young <italic>Quercus virginiana</italic> Miller trees, although higher glucose concentrations were observed in shoots; <italic>δ</italic> 
 <sup>13</sup>C signatures did not provide evidence that this was due to supply (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2009</xref>).</p>
						<p>In contrast, another study with <italic>J. mimosifolia</italic>, with 80 g L<sup>-1</sup> of glucose applied to the trunk (trees 27 cm <italic>ND</italic>), increased trunk starch reserves more than twofold (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Morales-Gallegos et al., 2019</xref>). Higher starch reserves help trees withstand stress conditions, as a decrease in starch to near-zero levels has been linked to tree death (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Zhang et al., 2021</xref>). Therefore, overmature trees exhibit depletion of starch, glucose, fructose, and sucrose (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hartmann &amp; Trumbore, 2016</xref>). In woody tissues, starch degradation occurs in autumn and spring, so having reserves is crucial for tolerating low temperatures and sustaining growth in spring (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Noronha et al., 2018</xref>).</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Paclobutrazol (PBZ) application</title>
						<p>This chemical compound is known to inhibit growth, promote branching, stimulate root system formation, and increase plant resistance to stress (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Jiang et al., 2019</xref>). In <italic>Populus alba</italic> L. trees subjected to severe pruning, the near-trunk application of 0.8 g of PBZ favored a higher concentration of non-reducing sugars in the trunk and foliage. However, growth and vitality variables were not influenced (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martínez-Trinidad et al., 2013b</xref>). In <italic>Fraxinus americana</italic> L., <italic>F. quadrangulata</italic> Michx., and <italic>F. mandshurica</italic> Rupr. trees, PBZ application increased the root-to-total biomass ratio by 9 % and 10 %, and was positively associated with improving water and nutrient uptake under drought conditions and infertile urban soils (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Tanis et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
						<p>In the roots of fruit trees subjected to water stress, applications of 1 200 mg plant<sup>-1</sup> have been found to linearly increase the contents of total soluble sugars, starch, and reducing sugars, and inhibit tree growth and promote flowering (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">de Sousa-Oliveira et al., 2022</xref>). Therefore, the use of PBZ in trees presents variations in results among species, growth parameters, and concentrations.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Mycorrhizal fungi as microbial biostimulants</title>
						<p>Microbial-based biostimulants are considered a subgroup of the heterogeneous family of biostimulants, as they stimulate biochemical and physiological processes that promote nutrient availability, strengthen the plant response system, and consequently improve their yield (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Joly et al., 2021</xref>). Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) and arbuscular fungi (AMF) are recognized as biostimulants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Sun &amp; Shahrajabian, 2023</xref>), which are strongly linked to the growth and vitality of trees in urban environments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Rusterholz et al., 2020</xref>); for example, <italic>Carya ovata</italic> (Mill.) K. Koch with 80 % mycorrhizal colonization, it has a survival probability of 1.0, and <italic>Quercus rubra</italic> L. requires 100 % colonization to have a probability close to 0.8 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Tonn &amp; Ibáñez, 2017</xref>).</p>
						<p>Inoculation of <italic>Fraxinus uhdei</italic> (Wenz.) Lingelsh. plants with <italic>Pisolithus tinctorius</italic> (Pers.) Coker &amp; Couch (EMF) and <italic>Glomus intraradices</italic> N. C. Schenck &amp; G. S. Sm. (AMF), now renamed <italic>Rhizoglomus intraradices</italic> (N. C. Schenck &amp; G. S. Sm.) Sieverd., G. A. Silva &amp; Oehl (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Sieverding et al., 2014</xref>), in severely eroded sites with low organic matter content (0.78 %), showed a survival rate of 64 % at 23 months after establishment, compared to 46 % in non-inoculated plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Báez-Pérez et al., 2017</xref>). <italic>P. tinctorius</italic> inoculation has positive effects on tree root growth, increasing root dry weight 1.89 times and improving the plant's potential for nutrient absorption (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Sebastiana et al., 2021</xref>). Also, inoculation of <italic>F. uhdei</italic> with <italic>Lactarius deliciosus</italic> (L.) Gray and <italic>Laccaria laccata</italic> (Scop.) Cooke (EMF) at concentrations of 2.5×10<sup>5</sup> and 1×10<sup>6</sup> established in a <italic>Jal</italic> substrate contaminated with heavy metals, showed better growth in height (47 cm) and dry weight (12 g), while uninoculated plants reached a height of 38 cm and a dry weight of 9 g (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Pérez-Baltazar et al., 2020</xref>). Inoculation of tree species with AMF has positive effects during nursery transplantation to urban sites and significantly influences plant survival, even more so than fertilizer doses applied at the nursery stage (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Fini et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
						<p>The AMF-host plant interaction can reduce flavonoid biosynthesis and affect poplar resistance, making it necessary to determine the AMF-host plant association that generates positive interactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Jiang et al., 2022</xref>). In <italic>Populus alba</italic>×<italic>P. berolinensis</italic> seedlings inoculated with <italic>Glomus mosseae</italic> (T. H. Nicolson &amp; Gerd.) Gerd. &amp; Trappe (15 propagules g of inoculum), increased the amount of metabolites with insecticidal properties in the foliage: coumarin, stachydrin, artocarpin, norizalpinin, abietic acid, 6-formylumbelliferone and vanillic acid (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Shuai et al., 2021</xref>). While the use of <italic>Laccaria bicolor</italic> (Maire) P. D. Orton in <italic>Populus trichocarpa</italic> Torr. &amp; A. Gray seedlings to combat the poplar canker <italic>Botryosphaeria dothidea</italic> (Moug.) Ces. &amp; De Not. showed that 12 of 661 genes are related to disease resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Dong et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
						<p>The root-AMF symbiosis grants other abilities to the tree, improving biochemical aspects such as the regulation of metabolites with strong antioxidant capacity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Calvo-Polanco et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>). Also, in trees used for urban use and ornamental species, the levels of phytohormones, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), gibberellins (GA3) and the IAA-abscisic acid (ABA) and GA3-ABA ratio increase. For example, in <italic>Cupressus arizonica</italic> Greene, when establishing symbiosis with <italic>Rhizophagus irregularis</italic> (Błaszk., Wubet, Renker &amp; Buscot) C. Walker &amp; A. Schüßler and <italic>Funneliformis mosseae</italic> (T. H. Nicolson &amp; Gerd.) C. Walker &amp; A. Schüßler (synonymy of <italic>Glomus mosseae</italic>) under drought conditions, its proline levels increased by 122 % and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) -an antioxidant enzyme- increased by 68 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aalipour et al., 2020</xref>). The response of these types of biostimulants is anticipatory, as they are aimed at plant production that will be established in the urban environment. Therefore, their use in mature trees is not considered (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Zwiazek et al., 2019</xref>); however, the application of organic amendments to mature trees is recommended as they promote higher rates of colonization by mycorrhizal fungi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ali et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
						<p>The use of biochar-based amendments and composts in <italic>Melia azedarach</italic> L. and <italic>Ficus macrocarpa</italic> Blume trees improved the physicochemical properties of the soil, with a decrease in available organic matter, calcium, and phosphorus observed, indicating nutrient uptake by the trees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Shiu et al., 2022</xref>). Rhizospheric soil of trees in an urban environment, with pronounced nutrient deficiencies, present low mycorrhizal colonization, so organic amendments are a factor that allows symbiosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Alam et al., 2025</xref>).</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Potential and limitations in the use of biostimulants</title>
					<p>The review focused on four alternatives from an extensive list of biostimulants that have demonstrated benefits for perennial plants. Microorganism-based biostimulants are considered to have the greatest potential for use in urban trees, given the advancement of <italic>omics</italic> sciences that has led to a greater understanding of their functioning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bizjak et al., 2023</xref>). Mechanisms such as N<sub>2</sub> fixation, hormone biosynthesis, regulation of reactive oxygen species, and expression of genes related to different types of stress are some of the capabilities exhibited by fungi and bacteria that establish different levels of association or symbiosis with trees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hasanuzzaman et al., 2021</xref>). However, microorganisms generate fewer positive effects under conventional production methods, so it is necessary to design protocols based on the problem to be solved (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Abaurre et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p>Seaweed extracts and their combination with humic acids have not generated positive responses in urban trees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks &amp; Percival, 2014</xref>). Possible reasons for this limited success include product quality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Yakhin et al., 2017</xref>). The method of application has also been debated; it is mainly applied to the soil, which is probably the main reason why there are no positive results in urban environments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al., 2024</xref>). For example, in apple trees (<italic>Malus domestica</italic> (Suckow) Borkh.), applying 1 % (1 L 99 L<sup>-1</sup> water) of the product Fertiactyl Starter<sup>®</sup> (United Kingdom), based on seaweed and humic acids, after three years, favors thicker stems with differences of 16.3 mm and 21.9 mm compared to control trees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kapłan et al., 2021</xref>). Applications of the microalgae product AgriAlgae<sup>®</sup> (Madrid, Spain) and Seaweed Mix<sup>®</sup> (Madrid, Spain) every 20 days to olive trees (<italic>Olea europaea</italic> L.) under a 50 % irrigation regime improved leaf area by 26 and 44 % and maintained stomatal conductance levels similar to those of plants under a 100 % irrigation regime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Graziani et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
					<p>So, how is it possible that in <italic>Quercus ilex</italic>, <italic>Ilex aquifolium</italic>, <italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> and <italic>Fagus sylvatica</italic>, seven biostimulants products, including three algae-based ones, did not generate any benefits for tree growth and physiology? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks &amp; Percival, 2014</xref>). Urban soils accentuate unfavorable characteristics for tree growth and health, such as high pH, compaction, mineral-poor soils, and pollution (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Rosier et al., 2021</xref>). Therefore, under extreme conditions, biostimulants based on algae extracts are not considered a good alternative (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Ricci et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
					<p>Product diversity is a factor that can limit the use of biostimulants, each with a different active ingredient (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Sun et al., 2024</xref>). Failure to follow application protocols or lacking experience in their use can result in tree physiology and morphology that differs from those expected (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Sun &amp; Shahrajabian, 2023</xref>). Epistemological contradictions are also noted in the literature, leading to discrepancies regarding what constitutes a biostimulant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Yakhin et al., 2017</xref>). This creates a state of uncertainty regarding the scope of this technology used in trees.</p>
					<p>The use of biostimulants in urban trees based on non-structural carbohydrates, such as the application of glucose and sucrose, is limited to a few references. However, in fruit trees, the application of sugars and amino acids is common, as their field of application is driven by the fruit market (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Sun et al., 2024</xref>). Meanwhile, in urban trees, the lack of direct economic benefits has probably limited further research aimed at finding more conclusive results on tree vitality. Below, a summary of their potential use and limitations in trees in urban environments is presented (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Use and substances in trees.</title>
							</caption>
							<table style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Type of biostimulant</th>
										<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Species</th>
										<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Benefits for the tree</th>
										<th align="center" style="border-bottom: solid thin; border-top: solid thin">Reference</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="left" rowspan="2">Seaweed extracts</td>
										<td align="left"><italic>Quercus ilex</italic> L., <italic>Ilex</italic> <break/><italic>aquifolium</italic> L., <italic>Sorbus</italic> <break/><italic>aucuparia</italic> L. and <italic>Fagus</italic> <break/><italic>sylvatica</italic> L.</td>
										<td align="left">Showed no beneficial effects <break/>on Fv/Fm or on stress-<break/>related variables</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Banks and Percival (2014)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Nine species</td>
										<td align="left">Growth in height</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cinantya et al. (2024)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Humic acids (Ah)</td>
										<td align="left"><italic>Betula pendula</italic> Roth and <break/><italic>Sorbus aucuparia</italic> L.</td>
										<td align="left">Better Fv/Fm: 0.7 with Ah <break/>and 0.6 without Ah; better <break/>chlorophyll content: 17.1 <break/>with Ah and 13.5 without Ah</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Barnes and Percival (2006)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Non-structural carbohydrates</td>
										<td align="left"><italic>Jacaranda mimosifolia</italic> D. Don</td>
										<td align="left">Higher dry matter and <break/>carbohydrate concentration</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Morales-Gallegos et al. (2020)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left" rowspan="2">Application of paclobutrazol</td>
										<td align="left"><italic>Populus alba</italic> L.</td>
										<td align="left">Higher concentration of non-<break/>reducing sugars in the trunk <break/>and foliage</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martínez-Trinidad et al. (2013b)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left"><italic>Fraxinus americana</italic> L., <italic>F.</italic> <break/><italic>quadrangulata</italic> Michx. and <break/><italic>F. mandshurica</italic> Rupr.</td>
										<td align="left">Increased root-to-total <break/>biomass ratio by 9 to 10 %</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Tanis et al. (2015)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left" rowspan="5" style="border-bottom: solid thin;">Mycorrhizal fungi</td>
										<td align="left" rowspan="2"><italic>Fraxinus uhdei</italic> (Wenz.) <break/>Lingelsh.</td>
										<td align="left">64 % survival rate in <break/>inoculated plants. 46 % <break/>survival rate in non-<break/>inoculated plants</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Báez-Pérez et al. (2017)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Improved growth in height <break/>and dry weight: 47 cm and <break/>12 g with inoculants and 38 <break/>cm and 9 g without <break/>inoculants</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Pérez-Baltazar et al. (2020)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left"><italic>Populus alba</italic>×<italic>P. berolinensis</italic></td>
										<td align="left">Increased amounts of <break/>metabolites with insecticidal <break/>properties in the foliage</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Jiang et al. (2022)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left"><italic>Populus trichocarpa</italic> Torr. &amp; A. Gray</td>
										<td align="left">Expression of 12 genes related to disease <break/>resistance</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Dong et al. (2021)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid thin;"><italic>Cupressus arizonica</italic> Greene</td>
										<td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid thin;">Proline levels increased by <break/>122 %, and malondialdehyde <break/>(MDA) content, an antioxidant <break/>enzyme, increased by 68 %</td>
										<td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid thin;">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aalipour et al. (2020)</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>In general, the results of biostimulants use have been limited, partly due to factors such as tree ontogeny and the environmental heterogeneity of urban environments, which make it difficult to observe consistent effects on growth, physiological, or carbohydrate accumulation variables. Therefore, it is proposed to consider variables at the molecular level, such as the expression of enzymes, proteins, and genes, to better understand their mechanisms of action. Among these, mycorrhizal fungi stand out for the breadth of evidence regarding their benefits on growth, root biomass, height, diameter, and nutrient uptake, in addition to their positive influence on gene expression related to systemic resistance. However, the challenge of developing efficient and species-specific inoculants for target species remains. Despite the limited literature on urban environments, all four types of biostimulants show potential for use in arboriculture, provided that key aspects such as doses, combinations, species, timing, and frequencies of application are studied in depth. Thus, the use of biostimulants represents a still open and promising line of research in urban tree management.</p>
			</sec>
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			<ack>
				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p>The authors are grateful for the graduate studies scholarship awarded to the first author by the <italic>Secretaría de Ciencia</italic>, <italic>Humanidades</italic>, <italic>Tecnología e Innovación</italic> (<italic>Secihti</italic>) (Secretariat of Science, Humanities, Technology, and Innovation) (<italic>Secihti</italic>).</p>
			</ack>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>